Determine the HPLC System Dwell Volume (Gradient Delay Volume)

Note: The total HPLC gradient system dwell volume is different than the HPLC column’s void volume. Two different terms for two very different measurements.

When we perform gradient HPLC analysis, the mobile phase composition is changed over a period of time. The mobile phase is mixed in real time by the pump(s), mixer and/or valves, then transported to the injector and finally, on to the head of the HPLC column. The total volume of liquid contained between where the mobile phase is mixed and the head of the column helps us determine when the newly mixed solution arrives at the column head (it is not instantaneous). This delay is often referred to as the gradient delay time (or delay volume) and its value will vary for different HPLC systems due mainly to differences in tubing dimensions used, pumping system type and the design of the flow path. 

For example: If the system dwell volume is found to be 1 ml and the flow rate used is 1.000 ml/min, then the gradient delay time is one minute. 

So how do we know what the system dwell volume or gradient delay volume is? Well, we measure it of course!

Measure the ‘System Dwell Volume’ (aka: Gradient Delay Volume)*:

(1) REMOVE any HPLC column(s) and install a Zero Dead Volume Union (*ZDV) or a restriction capillary of know volume in its place.

(2) Prepare Two Different Mobile phase solutions:

Bottle ‘A’: HPLC grade Methanol (MeOH).

Bottle ‘B’: HPLC grade Methanol with 0.1% acetone added (v/v).

(3) Set your UV/VIS detector to 265 nm (8 nm Bandwidth, Reference OFF).

(4) Program a suitable system flow rate and create a simple Gradient Method (linear change) which starts at 0.0 minutes with 100% ‘A’ (HPLC grade Methanol) and 0% B (HPLC grade Methanol with 0.1% acetone added) and runs to 0% ‘A’ and 100% ‘B’ for about 10.0 minutes (actual times used will depend on your selected flow rate).

(5) Flush and degas both solutions, ‘B’ first, then ‘A’ through the system until you get a nice clean, flat baseline. Make sure their is enough backpressure on the pump (>40 bars) to obtain a stable signal (use a restrictor or back-pressure regulator if needed).

(6) No injection should occur during this method.

(7) Start the method (RUN) and observe the 265 nm signal over time. At some point you should observe the signal begin to rise. When you see this signal change occur, the acetone has finally made it from the pump head to the detector’s flow cell. Make note of the time this occurs. 

Using the known flow rate and observed signal change time, you can now estimate the total system dwell volume. 

Example: If you observe the signal start to rise steeply at 2.00 minutes and your flow rate was 1.000 ml/min. Your system dwell volume would be 2.000 mls. 

A more accurate system dwell volume value can be obtained by next running the same method with an injection of acetone (e.g. 1 ul) and noting the time at which the injection peak is first seen. That will give you the time it takes the sample (and therefore the volume needed) to go from the injector to the flow cell. If you subtract this time off the system dwell time you recorded in the last test, you will have the actual measured time from the pump head (or proportioning valve) to the head of the column (vs the flow cell). Normally the volume contained in this tubing and flow cell are very small relative to the volume in the rest of the system, so we can ignore them. However, when using some of the very low volume columns (e.g. 2.1 x 50 mm), the volume contained in these areas can become significant so when appropriate, we need to be aware of them.

Failure to take into account changes in HPLC system dwell volumes can result in methods which no longer work or provide different results. This is because the gradient rate change you program in your method may not allow enough time for the new mobile phase composition to reach and flow all the way through the column in the time that you have programmed. A common mistake we see is when users forget to adjust the gradient profile when changing column dimensions or program changes using too fast a time.

BTW: One common trick we use to improve compatibility between systems which have different dwell volumes is to include an initial (time 0.0)  isocratic hold-time into the start of each method. If all systems used have system delay volumes under 3 mls, then add a 3 minute isocratic hold time at the start of each method (if 1.000 ml/min flow rates are used), before any gradient starts. While not the best way to deal with the issue, this type of “cheat” can make it possible to quickly adapt a method for use on several different system types.

*Note: This is a generic method to determine the system dwell volume or gradient delay volume. Detector signal buffering and flow cell volume also adds to the delay and in some cases, must also be accounted for too. There are many other methods which can be used for this determination as well. This proposed example serves to illustrate the concept only.

External (ESTD) vs. Internal Standard (ISTD) Calibration in HPLC

Reliable quantitation of sample analytes using HPLC analysis requires accurate and reliable quantitation of a standard(s). For chromatography applications, we commonly use either an External Standard or an Internal Standard, as applicable, to insure reliable quantification of the sample.

• NOTE: A quick comment about calibration methods. Before you begin to create any calibration tables or analyze any standards/samples, please make sure that your current chromatography method follows good chromatography fundamentals. It must be selective for the sample type, retain the compound(s) with good K prime values, be reproducible and resolve apart all of the samples and possible impurities with near to perfectly symmetrical peak shapes. Your calibration results will only be as good as your original method. A poor quality method may not provide reliable results so be sure and spend as much time as possible developing the initial HPLC method to be as rugged and reliable as possible before starting any quantitation or calibration. *Poor quality method development is the number one reason for problems with quantitation.

Methods of Quantitation, Peak-height vs. Peak-area: Both types of response provide a measurement of the detector signal output. Proper and reproducible integration of the signal output is critical. Peak area is the most popular choice in chromatography, but peak height measurements can also be used if the peaks have near perfect symmetry (very rare, so peak area is far more reliable for integration). Whichever method you chose, you must use it consistently and document it well.

Definitions, External & Internal Standards: For most samples, there are two commonly used types of standards used. When known standards are run separately from the actual samples (in their own chromatogram) and their response is compared to that of the sample in another chromatogram, then we refer to this as an External Standard (ESTD). When the standard is added to the sample and analyzed at the same time we refer to this as an Internal Standard (ISTD). With an Internal Standard we are comparing the instrument's response to the sample to a reference standard with similar response characteristics, both run together.

External Standard (ESTD) Calibration Notes: The sample must fall within a range bracketed by the calibration solution. I suggest that you include a range which covers concentration values which are ~ 50% or more outside of the expected range. Dissolve the final calibration standards into the mobile phase (or a weaker solution) when preparing the injection vials from the stock solution. At least five (5) different concentration values should be used per order-of-magnitude (larger range = more stds). *Inject the same volume of solution (different concentration) for each calibration standard point ("level") onto the column. Do Not inject different volumes of solution from one std vial to create different concentrations. Plot peak response vs concentration. Ideally, you should have a linear response and the line will go through the origin (true zero intercept, ideally, though matrix effects/or the use on non std detectors such as the ELSD or CAD may require complex curve fits/formulas to describe the response). Once you have injected all of the standards, repeat the process again at least three more times (or use multiple injections) to determine overall reproducibility before constructing the final calibration table.

Internal Standard (ISTD) Calibration Notes: Internal standards are commonly used when many sample preparation steps are required before the sample can be injected onto the column. The internal standard may compensate for any losses during filtration or extraction. Selection of the Internal Standard is critical. Some of the characteristics of a good ISTD should include: It must be different than the sample, well resolved and must not elute where any sample peaks could be expected; It should not elute where any interfering matrix or other compounds could appear; It should have a similar linear response as the sample (Inject a fixed volume/concentration); Available in a high purity form from one or more commercial sources (certified method); Must be stable and not react with the sample or mobile phase solution. 

Add it to the samples before any extraction procedures. Base the amount of ISTD concentration such that it is between 1/3 and 1/2 of the expected concentration of the sample(s). The sample's target concentration range is a good value to use. *Because of these and other strict conditions, finding a suitable Internal Standard can take some time and testing.

Determination of HPLC Column Void Volume / Dead Volume, Dead Time (T zero):

Column Hold-up Volume, Column Dead Time or 'Column Void Volume' (the preferred name) are all different terms we apply to find the internal volume of a packed column  (divided by the flow rate and usually expressed in minutes for the Column Void Time). You must know what this value is BEFORE starting to run an HPLC method or perform liquid chromatography. The value for column void volume changes for different column dimensions and different column support types (e.g. fully porous, superficially porous etc) .

Are you peaks or samples eluting at or near the column void volume? If so, for most modes of chromatography, this implies that no chromatography has taken place and no HPLC method has been developed (SEC/GPC separate based on hydrodynamic volume, so elution at or near the column volume means the sample(s) were excluded from the column). Individuals with little to no chromatography training or experience often make this mistake and create methods which show poor retention. Make sure your methods are designed to retain each sample for a long enough time period on the column (K prime). How do you know how long is long enough? Start by estimating the Column Void Volume (use our table or calculate it for an estimate) then, calculate the K prime value for your sample. The K prime for each peak should be at least 1.5 (>2.0 is the accepted standard for most regulatory authorities) for the method to be useful and selective. *A more accurate value of column void volume will be found by measuring the void volume of your column (please read on).

Knowing the Column Void Volume and the Flow Rate used allows you to calculate the Column Void Time (which is the most useful initial value). Determining  the column void time or T0 ("Tee Zero" as we call it), is necessary to find other important chromatography values such as: the Resolution, Separation Factor and Capacity Factor (K prime aka: "K1") in a chromatography separation. Ideally, it is measured by injecting a sample which is unretained by the column & mobile phase (it passes right through the column support with little to no interaction). It may also be easily estimated for most fully porous, spherical, bare or coated silica supports if you know a few physical specifications of the column and media used. You should first estimate it, then measure it (the two values should be close, +/- 15%). Note: A practical "tip". You can also estimate T0 by noting when the small injector valve switching peak ('blip') appears on the baseline. It results from the change from switching the injection valve from the "load" to "inject" positions. Use a low UV wavelength to observe this deflection on the baseline.

Here is short list of typical HPLC column dimensions and their associated estimated void volumes for fully porous silica supports. At a flow rate of 1.000 ml/min these values would also be the same as the void time in minutes.

COLUMN DIMENSIONS (I.D. x Length (mm))                 VOID VOLUME (ml)

                         2.1 x  50                                                                  0.12
                         2.1 x 100                                                                 0.24
                         2.1 x 150                                                                 0.37
                         2.1 x 250                                                                 0.61
                         2.1 x 300                                                                 0.73

                         4.6 x  50                                                                  0.58
                         4.6 x 100                                                                 1.16
                         4.6 x 150                                                                 1.75
                         4.6 x 250                                                                 2.90
                         4.6 x 300                                                                 3.49

                       10.0 x 100                                                                 5.50
                       10.0 x 150                                                                 8.25
                       10.0 x 250                                                               13.75
                       10.0 x 300                                                               16.49

•  Column Void Volume Equation for Std Sized, FULLY Porous Supports:

Column Volume (ul) = (d^2 *Pi * L * 0.7) / 4 ;

•  Column Void Volume Equation for SUPERFICIALLY Porous Supports (e.g. Fused-Core, Core-Shell etc):

Column Volume (ul) = (d^2 *Pi * L * 0.5) / 4 .

   Note: Column Diameter & Length are in mm. Volumes are estimates (always measure to find the actual value).

[Note: All you need is the column's length and ID to estimate it. For most fully porous supports, use a 'Pore Volume' value of 0.70 in the above equation. This is the most commonly measures pore volume found for non-encapped, fully porous spherical bare silica support (please check with the manufacturer for the actual value of your support). For superficially porous supports, use a value of 0.50. Estimating the value will often get you close to the measured value, but due to the unique chemistries used to prepare supports, it is only an approximation.

Always measure the actual void volume of your specific HPLC column with a compound which is unretained by your column. For RP applications which utilize at least 20% organic, Uracil or Thiourea are often used, but some inorganic salts (e.g. sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate) have also been shown to work as well. When determining the "Column Void Volume", you are really measuring the void volume of the column plus any extra-column volume from the injection volume plus all lines connecting the injection to the column and the column to the flow cell. Note: This is very different from the "System Dwell Volume" which includes the volume from the pump (or gradient valve) to the column head.

A more detailed version of this table with other common HPLC Column Sizes and Tubing Volumes for capillary lines are available at the following links (Link #1) or (Link #2).